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New types of kettles that do not fur up with limescale could be developed following research that studied how stalagmites build up in caves.

Scientists have created new models of how minerals build up from water, while attempting to model the accumulation of corrosive salts in nuclear waste.

They believe their findings can help to improve the design of kettles to prevent them from furring up, and making them easier to clean.

Models of stalagmite formation, which grow upwards from cave floors over millions of years, have been adapted to allow scientists to predict how both limescale and nuclear waste can build up in containers

Dr Duncan Borman, a civil engineer at the University of Leeds and co-author of the study, said: 'It's a wonderful example of how complex mathematical models can have everyday applications.

'We were approached by the National Nuclear Laboratory and Sellafield to solve the problem of predicting the shapes that precipitate from nuclear process solutions that can form in containment chambers

'The processes underlying the build-up of lime scale in a kettle are remarkably similar.

'The flow of a liquid containing a dissolved mineral - in this case calcium carbonate from hard water - over a surface of changing temperature, can result in solids precipitating out and leaving the build-up of solid material behind.

'Using the model we have developed, manufacturers could improve the design of kettles such that these unwanted build-ups are minimised by repositioning filaments or designing them so that deposits form in locations that are easy to clean.'

Limescale build up is a particular problem in areas with hard water and mean appliances such as kettles need regular cleaning. 

Excessive build up can also shorten the lifespan of a kettle.

However, Dr Borman's work will allow manufacturers to forecast the precise shape and location of limescale precipitation in appliances.

To produce the model, they studied lava flows from volcanoes and the formation of stalagmites in caves, which grow upwards from the floor over millions of years as calcium carbonate rich water drips from the roof.

This process also causes the formation of stalactites from the ceiling and over time these can eventually meet to form limestone columns within caves.

By adapting models the process of stalagmite formation to include chemical properties and varying temperature, he was able to forecast how minerals can be deposited under unnatural conditions.

Salt build up in nuclear waste at facilities like Sellafield, Cumbria, can damage containment vessels. The process is similar to what happens inside a kettle, on a much smaller scale

The researchers initially tried to use lava from volcanos to help predict the build up of nuclear waste salts, but found that adapting models used to explain how stalagmites form produced more accurate results

Limescale build up in kettles can make them less efficient at boiling water and shorten their lifespan

In the nuclear industry, hazardous salt solutions can form inside waste containment vessels, forming structures with strange shapes. If left unchecked they can build up and create problems.

In a study, published in the Computers & Chemical Engineering, Dr Borman and his colleagues demonstrated it was possible to predict how these form and say it could help to dramatically reduce the number of potentially harmful manual inspections of nuclear waste containers.

Professor Daniel Lesnic, a mathematician at the University of Leeds who was also an author of the study, added: "Our first thought was to find a suitable analogy in nature.

'At first we looked at how lava flows from a volcano to the ocean, but the formation of stalagmites in caves mimics the process much more closely.'

The research could allow manufacturers to design new limescale free kettles (stock image of a kettle pictured) or make them easier to clean