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Dogs are generally seen as cheerful, happy-go-lucky animals - so you might expect most have an optimistic outlook on life.

But research has found some canines are distinctly more pessimistic than others.

During tests, dogs were played sounds that indicated if they would get water or milk, but pessimistic dogs were found not to respond to the milk sound, suggesting they didn't think they would ever get it.

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Researchers from the University of Sydney claim some canines are distinctly more pessimistic than others when anticipating rewards. As part of the study, dogs were taught to associate two different sounds, which were two octaves apart, with either preferred reward of milk or a bowl of water 

'This research is exciting because it measures positive and negative emotional states in dogs objectively and non-invasively,' said Dr Melissa Starling, from the Faculty of Veterinary Science. 

'It offers researchers and dog owners an insight into the outlook of dogs and how that changes,'

'Finding out as accurately as possible whether a particular dog is optimistic or pessimistic is particularly helpful in the context of working and service dogs and has important implications for animal welfare.'

As part of the study, dogs were taught to associate two different sounds, which were two octaves apart, with either the preferred reward of milk, or a bowl of water.

Once the dogs learnt the discrimination task, they were played with 'ambiguous' tones.

If dogs responded after ambiguous tones, the researchers said it suggested they expected good things to happen, making them optimistic.

Their level of optimism could also be tracked by which tones they responded to.

For example, a very optimistic dog would respond to the majority of tones, even those that sounded more like the tones played before water was offered.

Dogs who didn't respond to the tones were labelled pessimistic.

This was because, even though they heard the tones, they didn't show signs of excitement, which could suggest they assumed they were getting the water. 

'Of the dogs we tested we found more were optimistic than pessimistic, but it is too early to say if that is true of the general dog population,' said Dr Starling. 

New research shows that some dogs can be pessimistic

Dr Melissa Starling (left) taught dogs (right) to associate sounds with either a milk reward, or a bowl of water. If dogs responded after ambiguous tones, she said it suggested they expected good things to happen, making them optimistic. Dogs who didn't respond were labelled pessimistic for assuming they were getting water

Pessimistic dogs also appeared to be much more stressed by failing a task than optimistic dogs

'Pessimistic dogs appeared to be much more stressed by failing a task than optimistic dogs. 

'They would whine and pace and avoid repeating the task while the optimistic dogs would appear unfazed and continue,' said Dr Starling.

'This research could help working dog trainers select dogs best suited to working roles.

'If we knew how optimistic or pessimistic the best candidates for a working role are, we could test dogs' optimism early and identify good candidates for training for that role. 

'A pessimistic dog that avoids risks would be better as a guide dog while an optimistic, persistent dog would be more suited to detecting drugs or explosives.' 

The research not only suggests how personality may affect the way dogs see the world and how they behave, but how positive or negative their current mood is.

'This research has the potential to completely remodel how animal welfare is assessed.

'If we know how optimistic or pessimistic an animal usually is, it's possible to track changes in that optimism that will indicate when it is in a more positive or negative emotional state than usual,' concluded Dr Starling.

The findings were published in PLOS.